I am uniquely positioned to add the plethora of research evidence on human trafficking due to several distinct characteristics I possess. Key amongst which is the fact that I was born and raised in Edo State in Nigeria. This is the location, which based on evidence in literature has been exposed as having one of the highest burdens of Human Trafficking and Contemporary Slavery, HTCS in the world.
Thus, I have a deep familiarity with the culture, myths, belief systems, language and struggles of people in this locality. Secondly, I lost my father and the family breadwinner at an early age. The hunger and poverty we passed through, exposed me to the vulnerabilities of trafficking and multiple approaches by many keen “gatekeepers” in the trafficking business, which I managed to navigate. Thirdly, having lived in the United Kingdom (UK) and worked in the National Health Service (NHS), for over two decades, in the fields of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, without losing my ties with my primary community, I understand the efforts and laws put in place by the United Kingdom Government and by extension, the governments of other host nations to curb HTCS.
In the face of all this, I have witnessed how many people from my home place do not engage with the support system set up to tackle the crime that is HTCS. The 30th day of July every year, is set aside as the World Day Against Trafficking in Persons. This year, 2024, the theme is “Leave no child behind in the fight against human trafficking” is prioritising why we must all “focus on our focus” and ensure we truncate the dense traffic of children that has remained persistent on the highways of modern-day slavery.
Trafficking and contemporary slavery (HTCS) from source countries to host countries, has undergone a metamorphosis through the years. In sharp contrast to historical slavery systems characterised by whips, chains and imprisonment, modern day slavery is driven underground, typically with no obvious signs of restraint. Rather, psychological abuse, coercion, grooming and manipulation, play powerful roles. Whereas the methods may have changed, today, contemporary human trafficking still remains an organised business that is similarly comparable to the transatlantic slave trade with various linkages globally. The drivers of this menace have varied very little from ancient times and include cross country income disparity, substantial demand for cheap labour, decreasing geographical distances with advances in transportation and previous colonial relations.
The UN states that human trafficking has become the world’s third largest crime, estimating that traffickers earn 150 million US Dollars annually, smuggling people between Africa and Europe. Furthermore, it is estimated that sadly, one out of every three of victims trafficked internationally is a child; a reason why I posit that every day, and not just the 30th of July annual should be spent beaming the search light on how we can each contribute to stop trafficking.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) reported in 2017 that Nigeria provides one of the most persistent global trafficking flows of victims to Europe, with the trafficking of Nigerian women and girls now at crisis level, in fact it is estimated that 94% of Nigerian victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation rescued outside of Nigeria are from one single place – Edo State (Source, Transit and Destination – the Journey of Nigerian Slavery, 2016). One would hope that 2016 statistics must now be outdated and that the picture of this burden has changed. Sadly, in 2024, the International Organisation for migration (IOM) published how for the 13th year running, the United States Department of State, in their Trafficking in persons Report, classified Nigeria as a Tier 2 country, which means that our government does not fully comply with the trafficking Victims Protection Act.
However, I must point out that due to the clandestine nature of this HTCS, the true burden likely remains underestimated. Despite all the deterring laws in place for HTCS by governments the world over, a lack of an in-depth understanding of the psychology of migrants themselves is present. Furthermore, an understanding of the socio-cultural milieu and how it affects people from different parts of the world, in this case, Nigeria, would help to throw more light on how the victims of HTCS seek to access help in different host nations. Hence there is the need for evidence from research for host countries policy and lawmakers to understand the socio-cultural uniqueness of source countries. Some of the factors to be considered which my current research work has revealed include:
Psycho-Behavioural Hypothesis
This control mechanism stems from traditional life-threatening, oath-taking rituals performed on victims from Nigeria usually during the recruitment process. Women are often lured by the promise of false job offers or education in Europe and/or manipulated through traditional beliefs (juju) (Country Policy and Information Note: Trafficking of Women, Nigeria, 2022). In a more recent publication, the nature of this psychological control, has been shown to hinder the protection, prosecution, and prevention of trafficking as relevant law enforcement authorities, especially in host countries like the United Kingdom, may not be aware of this factor (Dando et al. 2016, Hunt et al. 2020). There is already an awareness that HTCS is a “hidden crime” (Home Affairs Committee, 2022) but less understanding of the innate psycho-behaviour factors that persist to allow it shrouded status (Commonwealth Parliament Association, 2020).
The Loss of Rational Choice Theory
The loss of psychological control is a key characteristic in the rational choice theory - which is when the victim of HTCS displays an obliteration of the natural choice to break away and report to the necessary authorities. However, there is a significant dearth of evidence in published literature for this type of psycho-behavioural control and a loss of rational choice
Beliefs and Myths Theory
In Nigeria, there are cultural belief systems that outline specific myths relating to how offenders of the Gods can be brought to account through space and time irrespective of geographical locations. Hence, this works in synergy with the loss of rational choice theory; to further manipulate the minds of victims holding them bound within a fallacy. Beliefs in the myths and oaths, sworn before deities and other traditional Gods, can still hold people into account beyond the geographical location of where these oaths were taken. What then happens is a strong inertia by victims of HTCS to evade help. This comes across as completely irrational to the authorities in host countries prosecuting traffickers. Furthermore, the victims' lack of knowledge and seizure of identity documents, further fuels their fear of repercussions by the police and immigration officials all resulting in reduced access to care, support and justice.
Socio-Cultural Hypothesis
Culture is the way of life of a people, and it is a commonly known fact that culture is dynamic. A people's values can be seen as part of their culture. We thrive in groups interacting for good and even sometimes for bad because man is a social animal. Our interactions are done within the age-old cultural pool of people often along geographical and ethnic lines. With respect to contemporary slavery and human trafficking, several cultures where there is an ostentatious display of wealth at ceremonies like weddings, burial and the likes, are platforms for subtle advertisement by recruiters. These recruiters (many of whom have been trafficked in the past themselves) take advantage of the socio-cultural validation of these events to exhibit their ill wealth and lure unsuspecting victims especially children into HTCS. Oftentimes, these harbingers of false social prosperity, do not disclose the true nature of how they have come by their wealth while they were abroad. This is how the socio-cultural milieu of host and source countries drives the burden of HTCS.
Society, Culture and the Law
Human trafficking is an organised crime. Many people are involved. It is a chain or continuum, with people in the crime performing specific tasks. In this organised crime there are recruiters, people who go to villages to deceive young girls and boys through their parents. They give the impression to parents of assisting their relations for a better education, employment without the full knowledge of what awaits their children. Recruiters include sisters, brothers, in-laws, drivers, businessmen and women, law enforcement officers amongst a long list of other cohorts. In source countries like Nigeria, these people abound in the extended family systems where they are in close non-boundary contacts with the target vulnerable persons. Orphaned children, especially the daughters of relatives are preyed upon.
Furthermore, the culture of respect for elders and not questioning critically, those in authority or people with a power gradient in age, wealth or societal strata, makes it easy to hide behind cultural facade and pervade the law against trafficking at all levels. The would-be victims move from one stage to another until they get to their final destinations where these young girls and boys are distributed to madams and “ogas” who need their services. We should bear in mind that the two weapons used by traffickers to get their victims are deception and through force. Human trafficking is a crime. Those who engage in trafficking are often friends, relatives, neighbours and familiar people to victims. Human trafficking is an organised crime. It has a chain of syndicates. In this organised crime we have the: sponsors, financials and facilitators. There are madams or bosses, supervisors, accomplices or collaborators, aiders and abetters, victims or persons who are trafficked and exploited.
Economic Hypothesis
There are numerous economic factors which encourage HTCS. Poverty in source countries and the economic opportunities that host countries present is often seen as enough reason to brave the risks of illegal migration. Literature highlights how economic mobility is a key factor for migration and as such, it can be extrapolated to be a reason too, for illegal migration. A woman’s family might often support trafficking for economic reasons.
Demand and Supply Theory
Against the background of highlighted economic drivers in the source nations, the demand for trafficking in resource rich host countries is fuelled by the commercial desire for cheap labour. This forms the basis for demand and supply theory to take root. In order to disrupt the supply chains prevalent within the system, the problems surrounding demand must first be addressed. This disruption must take root as an intentional positive action, one which takes account of the greater economical context which allows HCTS to flourish. This cross-country income disparity combined with the demand of cheap labour and the reduced geographical challenges posed creates an avenue for the worsening of HTCS.
Abuse
Abuse is a fundamental part of HTCS. However, certain ingredients are required for the ultimate end product of abuse of all kinds. Though physical abuse and even rape is the most commonly documented form of abuse utilised by perpetrators of HTCS, another one of the most frequently used and effective strategies is economic abuse, which has received much less attention than physical or sexual abuse. There is anecdotal evidence of how female children are starved of funds by their parents and wives by their husbands in a bid to get them into a mental state that is very receptive to do anything required to push them into being trafficked
Grooming
Grooming, which is the gradual establishment of trust and emotional connection to make potential victims lower their guards and eventual fall prey as well as the wider cohesion displayed by society is key to exacerbating the consequences of abuse. Grooming allows for deeper and more sustained level of abuse. At first, traffickers represent themselves as saviours; they come into underprivileged towns and offer the chance of a better life, with more money and improved opportunities. Vulnerable people are easily persuaded, what could be worse than their current situation? The victims are led, initially with consent, by the promise of improvement to a rich western country - in many cases, to Europe.
Evidence in the literature shows that HTCS usually operates in tandem with grooming and that it is facilitated by the cognizant and unconscious cohesion that people engage in. In contemporary society, due to the increased technological advancements which have facilitated human’s tendency towards self-interest – It is much easier for people to remain apathetic to the horrors they are either exposed to or witness firsthand. This is largely a result of the constant barrage of information freely available via the internet presently. Thus, this affects the overall attitudes to abuse which exist within society; people’s awareness is hindered by an apathy exacerbated by lack of change. In Nigeria this sentiment is further exacerbated by the lack of resources available, the cross between multidimensional poverty and disillusionment is especially damaging.
With a deeper understanding of these areas my research has shed light on can be made reflective templates for law enforcement agencies in host nations across the world as well as for the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) in Nigeria and other similar agencies in other source nations, we can truncate the highway of modern slavery together. We must work to protect our future children, who are the future of our planet from this menace and take accelerated action to protect the girl child, who are most disproportionately affected. We each have a role to play. We must each become traffic wardens in our every niche and help, collaborate to put an end to this evil which though clandestine, happens in broad daylight.
Dr Loretta Oduware Ogboro-Okor is a Doctoral research fellow, Helena Kennedy Centre for International Justice, Sheffield Hallam University, England